Survey Of Mammals On Different Land Use Types

“Best bet” Land-use Systems

Thematic reports

Impact of different land uses on biodiversity

An Intensive Biodiversity Baseline Study in Jambi Province,Central Sumatra, Indonesia

 

Unique id: 5

Source file: D:\Projects\ASB\ASB Country and Thematic reports - xml\Above ground biodiversity assessmet WG\C-Sec4-5.xml

 

Authors: Ibnu Maryanto, Agus P. Kartono, Martua A  H. Sinaga

 

--------------------------------------------------------------------------

 

 

5.1       Introduction:

 

Not less than 620 species mammals are found in Indonesia. According to Krebs (1972), the distribution of animal species generally follows, or is commensurate with, changes in the physical environmental pattern. Medway (1972) believes that changes in animal diversity are congruent with elevation changes. Studies of bats from Kitchener et al., (1990) suggest that populations vary inversely with elevation. Habitat type is the other factor which greatly influences animal diversity according to Kitchener et al., (1997) from their study in Tembagapura, Irian Jaya, [see also Kitchener and Maryanto (1997) from the result study in P.Gag Irian Jaya].

 

To understand the degree to which mammal species vary across similar habitat types, we need to observe their diversity and distribution from primary forest to industrial forest plantation and jungle rubber as well as in areas that have been converted from forest to open areas such as alang-alang (Imperata) and/ or Cassava garden. This is a report on mammal diversity across six different land-use types : primary forest, secondary forest, jungle rubber jungle and rubber plantation, Paraserianthes plantation, and open areas under Imperata and Cassava (LUTs combined). Our observations were made just a week after a drought had broken and after forest fire and dense smoke affected all land-use types in Sumatra.

 

5.2       Site selection and methods:

 

5.2.1    Sites:

 

The sites were established at Pasir Mayang (01º 04’ 47’’ S, 102º 06’ 02’’ E), Pancuran Gading (01º 10’ 12’’ S, 102º 06’ 50’’ E), and Kuamang Kuning (01º 35’ 56’’ S, 102º 21’ 11’’ E), Muara Bungo, Jambi.  There were 11 sample plots co-located with the vegetation survey team across six land use types as follows :

 

            PrimaryForest : (BS1, BS2)

            Logged-over Forest : (BS3, BS4, and BS5)

            IndustrialForestPlantation (Paraserianthes) : (BS6 and BS7)

            Rubber Plantation : (BS8)

            Rubber Jungle ; (BS10)

            Imperata and Cassava (Open areas) : (BS12 and BS14)

 

5.2.2Data collection:

 

We surveyed the diversity and ecological status of mammals during the period 19-29 November 1997. (Annex III Tables 5,6,7) We used two observer groups: the first group observed bats and rats, and the second group observed other mammals, excluding bats and rats. The second group  observed direct and indirect occurrences of mammals at the sample plot location.

 

5.2.2.1 Bats and Rats:

 

Collecting data for bat and rat diversity was implemented using mist nets and rat traps on six different land use types. We used a specific rat trap design known as  “Trap Kasmin” (28x12x12cm)  made from wire. In the field we used baits of coconut and peanut butter to attract the animals. We placed traps five metres apart along a transect on each land use type  with 15-20 traps every night. From experience of Kitchener et al., (1997) and from our own experience on small mammal research in Nusa Tenggara and Maluku during 1989-1995, traps should be left for three days, except in an open area such as alang-alang and Cassava (two days only). The total number of traps used for all land use type was 459 (Table 5.1).  We trapped bats using a mist net placed to intercept bat flight paths. For each site, we used 2 9x12m mist nets, and left these for three days. We checked the traps every day and night at 08:00 and 20:00hrs (Table 5.1).

 

The maturity status of bats and rats is based on the basioccipital and basispenoid bone component (Kitchener and Maryanto 1993; Maryanto and Boeadi 1994). We determined the reproduction status for each bat and rat by direct examination of the position of the testes (abdominal, inguinal, or scrotal), virgin uterus form (nulliparous), the total number of foetuses, and the amount of scars that indicated whether or not an animal had been pregnant.

 

5.2.2.2   Small and large mammals (excluding bats and rats):

 

Observations of small and big mammals other than bats and rats were made twice daily; the first between 06.30-08.00 and second between 16:30-18:00. To complete the data, we included an additional observation at night between 20.00-22.00hrs. The types of data recorded were: a) animal species, b) total number of individuals,  c) the contact distance between animals and the plot centre, d) contact direction, e) time of contact and f) direct and indirect  track from foot, sound, and other tracks.

 

Table 5.1

The total number of traps and mist nets area for each land use type.

 

Habitat

Trap

Mist net  (m2)

Primary forest  (BS1&2) 

60

163,8

Log over (BS 3)

60

117

Log over 1983 (BS3,4 &5)

60

163,8

Paraseriantes (BS6)

60

156

Paraseriantes (BS7)

60

163,8

Rubber plantation (BS8&9)

60

132,6

Alang-alang (BS12&13)

30

31,2

Cassava plantation (BS14&15)

30

23,4

Rubber jungle (BS10&11)

39

109,2

Total

459

1060,8

 

 

                  Data Analysis:

 

For all taxa, we made comparisons between diversity from different land-use types and Simpson Index diversity (Simpson, 1949), Shannon-Wiener Index (Ludwig and Reynolds 1988) and cluster analysis using SPSS/PC software.

 

5.4       Discussion and Results:

 

5.4.1    Bats:

 

Mist nets were unsatisfactory. From the total mist net traps with size 9 and 12 meter that were used for three nights on each land use type, there were only a few species captured, which included frugivores such as Rousettus amplexicaudatus at the Paraserianthes site, Cynopterus brachyotis at rubber plantation and Balionycteris maculata at logged-over forest. Other species were Pipistrellus javanicus at a Paraserianthes plantation, Rhinolophus lepidus in logged-over forest ( an insectivore). The total number of individual of bats  per square meter during the survey was 0.0122 with 0.005 and for the total species.  (Table 5.2). All female bats were pregnant. Also we found Pteropus vampyrus (kalong) that was observed on the flight line in logged-over forest. These animals can fly between islands 60 km apart (Marti Fujita, personal comunication).

 

Compared with our survey of bats in 1991 (before the El Niño smoke disaster in our study area), Maryanto (unpublished data) recorded 0.08 species m-2 and 0.39 individuals m-2 in logged-over forest.  This figure was greatly reduced with the change to Paraserianthes plantation. In 1991 using the mist net with total area 140.4 m2, we recorded Balionycteris maculata, Megaerops wetmoreyi, Cynopterus brachyotis, Macroglotus sobrinus, Rousettus amplexicaudatus, Nycteris javanica, Tylonycteris pachypus, Tylonycteris robustula, Hipposideros cervinus, Megaderma spasma and Rhinolophus sp. (cf. lepidus) (Table 5.3). Another comparison with data from logged-over forest at selection cutting in Serestra II, Bangko, JambiProvince, in January 1996 showed that the total number of individual and species for bats per square meter was 0.029 and 0.009 (Maryanto et al., 1996) (Table 5.3). The differences between diversity and abundance may be because of the excessive smoke in the current survey area. The site location in this survey was particularly bad due to smoke that only disappeared one week prior to the survey. We were surprised not to find common species such as Cynopterus brachyotis or Macroglossus sobrinus. These species are usually very common in all areas of Sumatra with elevation less than 1000m (Kitchener et al., 1990, Corbet and Hill 1992). We conclude that the widespread smoke may have had a negative impact on the bat populations.

 

Using mist nets should be much more efficient to catch frugivorous bats (Megachiroptera), but on this survey we were unsuccessful. On the other hand for a mist net that usually  is not effective to catch Microchiroptera (insect eater), we recorded a higher than usual percentage  of  27.27% (3 individuals from a total of 11 bats). The impact of smoke in these area is the main reason why the total population of frugivorous was less, but this did seem to affect insectivores. The high percentage of these bats is related to their feeding behaviour, as they can catch something small without using their eyes. Another possibility is the nature of their habitat. Insectivores usually stay in an enclosed close place such as roof or cave, but this is the opposite for the frugivores, who inhabit open spaces (Kitchener et al.,, 1990, Corbet and Hill, 1992).

 

From the total number of bats recored, Megaerops wetmoreyi was the only rare species (Micklenburh et al., 1992). This is a common species in Riau and also in Pasir Mayang,  particularly in primary forest and logged-over forest, but recently this forest has been converted to industrial forest plantation (Paraserianthes /BS7) (Maryanto, unpublished data).  We suggest another study should be implemented to examine the impact of both smoke and habitat conversion from logged-over to industrial forest plantation.

 

The species Balionycteris maculata that we trapped in the field indicates that this species is distributed across all primary and secondary forests at elevations below 600m. This might be a new species because it is differs from the one recorded in Kalimantan (Maryanto, unpublished data). To confirm this, we need to compare it with the specimen original recorded in Malaya and now available in the Raffles Museum, Singapore.      

 

Table 5.2

Trapping bats using a mist net for each land use type, individual, individual/trial 100m2*

 

Land Use Type and plot

Effort

Species

Individual

Ind/effort

Diversity

Primary BS1 &BS2

163.8

-

-

-

-

Logged-over forest (BS 3,4,5)

280,8

2

2

0,7

0,3

Paraserianthes (BS6&7)

319,8

2

4

1,3

0,3

Jungle Rubber

241,8

1

5

2,1

0

Alang-alang

31,2

-

-

-

-

Cassava plantation

23,4

-

-

-

-

Diversity

 

 

 

 

0,6

*  Values are Simpson's diversity index.

 

Table 5.3

Comparative effort in trapping bats at logged-over forest in Serestra, Bangko, Jambi, January 1996 (Maryanto et al. 1996), logged-over forest / primary October 1991 (before conversion to Paraserianthes / location BS7/ Maryanto, I. Data unpublished) and at Pasir Mayang research site, Kuamang Kuning,

Pancuran Gading November 1997).

 

Species Name

Bangko

 (1996)

  Logged-over (1991)

 (Now Paraserianthes

             /BS7)

Pasir Mayang,

Kuamang kuning,

Pancuran Gading,1997

Balionycteris maculata,

     x

                 x

                x (BS4,5)

Cynopterus brachyotis

     x

                 x

                x (BS8,9,10,11)

Chironax melanocephalus,

     x

 

 

Dyacopterus spadiceus

     x

 

 

Megaerops wetmorei,

 

                 x

 

Megaerops ecaudatus

     x

 

 

Penthetor lucasi

     x

 

 

Macroglosus sobrinus

     x

                 x

 

Eonycteris spelaea

     x

 

 

Rousettus amplexicaudatus

 

                 x

                 x (BS6)

Hipposideros cervinus, 

 

                 x

 

Nycteris javanica,

 

                 x

 

Megaderma spasma

 

                 x

 

Myotis muricola

 

 

                 x (BS 7)

Rhinolophus  lepidus

 

                 x

                 x (BS4,5)

Tadarida mops

     x

 

 

Tylonycteris pachypus,

 

                 x

 

Tylonycteris robustula,

 

                 x

 

 

 

            Rats:

 

This kind of animal can be found on different land use types and shows differences in degraded habitats. Maxomys rajah usually dominates primary forest and logged-over forest, while Maxomys whiteheadi is normally very common in open areas. But in our survey we found this species in the logged-over forest, Paraserianthes, and rubber plantation. It is very closely related to Rattus exulans that we found also in Paraserianthes and rubber plantations. Although rats occurred across all LUTs, abundance was greatest at the Imperata site (see Table 5.4).

 

The reproduction status and ecology for each rat species in different land uses can be explained by the following :

 

            Microbiogeography of rats:

 

The dissimilarity distance between locations based on rat habitat show that there are two groups;  primary and logged-over forest in the first group, and jungle rubber, Paraserianthes and Imperata in the second group. Results based on dissimilarity distances between rats show that Rattus tanezumi and Rattus tiomanicus tend to share a similar habitat. This is different to Maxomys rajah, that tends to live separately from other rats. The choice of habitat and associated breeding condition for each species can be explained by the following :

 

Rattus tanezumi (Indonesian black rats)

            During the survey only one individual was found in the Paraserianthes plantation. This species is similar to Rattus rattus, but there are significant genetic differences between these species (Musser & Carleton, 1993). The reason it is found in Paraserianthes plantation is because there is a lot of human activity in that area. We predicted there would be a close relationship between rats at the Paraserianthes plantation and the level of human activity within the plantation forest.

 

 

Rattus exulans(Pacific rats)

Ecology:

This species has a wider range of distribution in South East Asia, Indonesia, New Zealand and Polynesia and has a specific habitat in Papua New Guinea and Solomon Islands. It is commensal with human activity and can survive up to 3000m above sea level. In paddy fields and gardens this species could become a pest (Maryanto, data unpublished). In this rapid survey the species was found in the Paraserianthes plantation, rubber plantation, Imperata, and jungle rubber. We did not find it in the Cassava plantation, and we suggest that this species might have moved to Imperata-dominated areas.

 

Reproduction:

We caught nine female rats in six different land use types during the survey and they were all pregnant . One female rat  found at the Paraserianthes site was  pregnant with two scars at both sides and uterine horn 1,48mm wide; another female rat found at the Imperata site was also pregnant with 5 foetuses in the left side and 1 at the other. Dwyer (1975) mentions that this species will breed during the wet season and produce a large litter.

 

Rattus tiomanicus(Malayan field rats)

Ecology:

This species was found at both the Paraserianthes plantation and Imperata and it prefers a bushy place (Payne et al., 1985). From nine rats found during the survey, 8 occurred in Imperata , and one at a site similar to Paraserianthes. Corbet and Hill (1992) argue that this species is mutually incompatible with Rattus tanezumi.

 

Reproduction:

Six out of nine rats were male and ready for breeding. From 3 female rats, 2  were pregnant with one  soon to be pregnant. About 5-7 babies will be born from each rat.

 

Maxomys rajah(Brown spiny rats)

Taxonomy:

Two sub-species of these rats are widespread in Sumatra (Van Strien 1986) :  M.r. pellax and M.r. similis. At our site location we are not certain whether it is M.r. similis, so we need to repeat our effort by making a comparative sample from Aceh (Chasen 1940).

 

 

Ecology:

This species tends to live in secondary forest or primary forest with sandy soil (Payne 1985). In this survey, even though the soil type between Paraserianthes and rubber plantation was similar (ultisol) and the sites closer to each other, in this survey we did not find Maxomys rajah in both sites. It was predicted that besides soil type, the litter depth at primary and logged-over forest would exert a major influence over the presence of this species.

 

Reproduction:

Seven mature rats were found in the field from the total specimens. There were 4 male Maxomys rajah from both primary and secondary forest ready for breeding (Scrotal). One female rat had been pregnant twice with the six scars on the right and five on the left (on the logged-over area), and another 2 female rats were found in the primary forest , one pregnant and the other still young but ready for breeding.

 

Maxomys whiteheadi(Whitehead’s rat)

Ecology:

This species can be found near the forest. Payne et al., (1985) mentions that this species can attack paddy rice, especially where paddy fields are surrounded by forest. It is associated with Rattus argentiventer, Rattus exulans, Rattus tiomanicus, Rattus tanezumi (Maryanto, data unpublished). In this survey, we found this species in Paraserianthes, logged-over forest, rubber plantation, and Imperata.

 

Reproduction:

We found 3 male rats in the field with imperfect testes  (inguinal), only one showing perfect testes (scrotal). Another had just  given birth and another 2 were pregnant.

 

Table 5.4

Records of rats for each land use type and each plot based on sexual status and reproduction.

 

Habitat

Trap

 trial

Male mature

Male young

Female mature

Female young

Trapped

Trapping/

    trial

Primary forest  (BS1&2) 

  2

   2

 

     2

 

     4

      2

Logged-over (BS 3)

  2

   1

 

     1

 

     2

      1

Logged-over 1983 (BS4 &5)

  2

   2

   1

     1

 

     4

      2

Parasarianthess (BS6)

  2

   4

 

     2

 

     6

      3

Parasarianthes (BS7)

  2

   1

 

     1

 

     2

      1

Rubber plantation (BS8&9)

  2

   2

   -

     1

     -

     3

     1,5

Imperata  (BS12&13)

  1

   6

   3

     2

     2

    13

     13

Cassava (BS14&15)

  1

   -

   -

     -

     -

     -