Survey Of Mammals On Different Land Use Types
“Best bet” Land-use Systems
Thematic reports
Impact of different land uses on biodiversity
An Intensive Biodiversity Baseline Study in Jambi Province,Central Sumatra, Indonesia
Unique id: 5
Source file: D:\Projects\ASB\ASB Country and Thematic reports - xml\Above ground biodiversity assessmet WG\C-Sec4-5.xml
Authors: Ibnu Maryanto, Agus P. Kartono, Martua A H. Sinaga
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5.1 Introduction:
Not less than 620 species mammals
are found in
To understand the degree to which
mammal species vary across similar habitat types, we need to observe their
diversity and distribution from primary forest to industrial forest plantation
and jungle rubber as well as in areas that have been converted from forest to
open areas such as alang-alang (Imperata)
and/ or Cassava garden. This is a report
on mammal diversity across six different land-use types : primary forest,
secondary forest, jungle rubber jungle and rubber plantation, Paraserianthes plantation, and open
areas under Imperata and Cassava (LUTs combined). Our
observations were made just a week after a drought had broken and after forest
fire and dense smoke affected all land-use types in
5.2 Site selection and
methods:
5.2.1 Sites:
The sites were established at Pasir Mayang (01º 04’ 47’’ S, 102º 06’ 02’’ E), Pancuran Gading (01º 10’ 12’’ S, 102º 06’ 50’’ E), and Kuamang Kuning (01º 35’ 56’’ S, 102º 21’ 11’’ E), Muara Bungo, Jambi. There were 11 sample plots co-located with the vegetation survey team across six land use types as follows :
Logged-over
Rubber
Rubber Jungle ; (BS10)
Imperata and Cassava (Open areas) : (BS12 and BS14)
5.2.2Data collection:
We surveyed the diversity and ecological status of mammals during the period 19-29 November 1997. (Annex III Tables 5,6,7) We used two observer groups: the first group observed bats and rats, and the second group observed other mammals, excluding bats and rats. The second group observed direct and indirect occurrences of mammals at the sample plot location.
5.2.2.1 Bats and Rats:
Collecting data for bat and rat diversity was implemented using mist nets and rat traps on six different land use types. We used a specific rat trap design known as “Trap Kasmin” (28x12x12cm) made from wire. In the field we used baits of coconut and peanut butter to attract the animals. We placed traps five metres apart along a transect on each land use type with 15-20 traps every night. From experience of Kitchener et al., (1997) and from our own experience on small mammal research in Nusa Tenggara and Maluku during 1989-1995, traps should be left for three days, except in an open area such as alang-alang and Cassava (two days only). The total number of traps used for all land use type was 459 (Table 5.1). We trapped bats using a mist net placed to intercept bat flight paths. For each site, we used 2 9x12m mist nets, and left these for three days. We checked the traps every day and night at 08:00 and 20:00hrs (Table 5.1).
The maturity status of bats and rats is based on the basioccipital and basispenoid bone component (Kitchener and Maryanto 1993; Maryanto and Boeadi 1994). We determined the reproduction status for each bat and rat by direct examination of the position of the testes (abdominal, inguinal, or scrotal), virgin uterus form (nulliparous), the total number of foetuses, and the amount of scars that indicated whether or not an animal had been pregnant.
5.2.2.2 Small and large mammals
(excluding bats and rats):
Observations of small and big mammals other than bats and rats were made twice daily; the first between 06.30-08.00 and second between 16:30-18:00. To complete the data, we included an additional observation at night between 20.00-22.00hrs. The types of data recorded were: a) animal species, b) total number of individuals, c) the contact distance between animals and the plot centre, d) contact direction, e) time of contact and f) direct and indirect track from foot, sound, and other tracks.
Table 5.1
The total number of
traps and mist nets area for each land use type.
|
Habitat |
Trap |
Mist net
(m2) |
|
Primary forest (BS1&2) |
60 |
163,8 |
|
Log over (BS 3) |
60 |
117 |
|
Log over 1983 (BS3,4 &5) |
60 |
163,8 |
|
Paraseriantes (BS6) |
60 |
156 |
|
Paraseriantes (BS7) |
60 |
163,8 |
|
Rubber plantation (BS8&9) |
60 |
132,6 |
|
Alang-alang (BS12&13) |
30 |
31,2 |
|
Cassava plantation (BS14&15) |
30 |
23,4 |
|
Rubber jungle (BS10&11) |
39 |
109,2 |
|
Total |
459 |
1060,8 |
Data Analysis:
For all taxa, we made comparisons between diversity from different land-use types and Simpson Index diversity (Simpson, 1949), Shannon-Wiener Index (Ludwig and Reynolds 1988) and cluster analysis using SPSS/PC software.
5.4 Discussion and Results:
5.4.1 Bats:
Mist nets were unsatisfactory. From the total mist net traps with size 9 and 12 meter that were used for three nights on each land use type, there were only a few species captured, which included frugivores such as Rousettus amplexicaudatus at the Paraserianthes site, Cynopterus brachyotis at rubber plantation and Balionycteris maculata at logged-over forest. Other species were Pipistrellus javanicus at a Paraserianthes plantation, Rhinolophus lepidus in logged-over forest ( an insectivore). The total number of individual of bats per square meter during the survey was 0.0122 with 0.005 and for the total species. (Table 5.2). All female bats were pregnant. Also we found Pteropus vampyrus (kalong) that was observed on the flight line in logged-over forest. These animals can fly between islands 60 km apart (Marti Fujita, personal comunication).
Compared with our survey of bats
in 1991 (before the El Niño smoke disaster in our study area), Maryanto
(unpublished data) recorded 0.08 species m-2 and 0.39 individuals m-2
in logged-over forest. This figure
was greatly reduced with the change to Paraserianthes
plantation. In 1991 using the mist net with total area 140.4 m2, we
recorded Balionycteris maculata,
Megaerops wetmoreyi, Cynopterus brachyotis, Macroglotus sobrinus, Rousettus
amplexicaudatus, Nycteris javanica, Tylonycteris pachypus, Tylonycteris
robustula, Hipposideros cervinus, Megaderma spasma and Rhinolophus sp. (cf. lepidus)
(Table 5.3). Another comparison with data from logged-over forest at selection
cutting in Serestra II, Bangko,
Using mist nets should be much more efficient to catch frugivorous bats (Megachiroptera), but on this survey we were unsuccessful. On the other hand for a mist net that usually is not effective to catch Microchiroptera (insect eater), we recorded a higher than usual percentage of 27.27% (3 individuals from a total of 11 bats). The impact of smoke in these area is the main reason why the total population of frugivorous was less, but this did seem to affect insectivores. The high percentage of these bats is related to their feeding behaviour, as they can catch something small without using their eyes. Another possibility is the nature of their habitat. Insectivores usually stay in an enclosed close place such as roof or cave, but this is the opposite for the frugivores, who inhabit open spaces (Kitchener et al.,, 1990, Corbet and Hill, 1992).
From the total number of bats recored, Megaerops wetmoreyi was the only rare species (Micklenburh et al., 1992). This is a common species in Riau and also in Pasir Mayang, particularly in primary forest and logged-over forest, but recently this forest has been converted to industrial forest plantation (Paraserianthes /BS7) (Maryanto, unpublished data). We suggest another study should be implemented to examine the impact of both smoke and habitat conversion from logged-over to industrial forest plantation.
The species Balionycteris maculata that we trapped in the field indicates that
this species is distributed across all primary and secondary forests at
elevations below 600m. This might be a new species because it is differs from
the one recorded in
Table 5.2
Trapping bats using a mist net for each
land use type, individual, individual/trial 100m2*
|
Land Use Type and plot |
Effort |
Species |
Individual |
Ind/effort |
Diversity |
|
Primary BS1 &BS2 |
163.8 |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
Logged-over forest (BS 3,4,5) |
280,8 |
2 |
2 |
0,7 |
0,3 |
|
Paraserianthes (BS6&7) |
319,8 |
2 |
4 |
1,3 |
0,3 |
|
Jungle Rubber |
241,8 |
1 |
5 |
2,1 |
0 |
|
Alang-alang |
31,2 |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
Cassava plantation |
23,4 |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
Diversity |
|
|
|
|
0,6 |
* Values are Simpson's diversity index.
Table 5.3
Comparative effort in trapping bats at
logged-over forest in Serestra, Bangko, Jambi, January 1996 (Maryanto et al. 1996), logged-over forest /
primary October 1991 (before conversion to Paraserianthes
/ location BS7/ Maryanto, I. Data unpublished) and at Pasir Mayang research
site, Kuamang Kuning,
Pancuran Gading November 1997).
|
Species Name |
Bangko (1996) |
Logged-over (1991) (Now Paraserianthes /BS7) |
Pasir Mayang, Kuamang kuning, Pancuran Gading,1997 |
|
Balionycteris maculata, |
x |
x |
x (BS4,5) |
|
Cynopterus brachyotis |
x |
x |
x (BS8,9,10,11) |
|
Chironax melanocephalus, |
x |
|
|
|
Dyacopterus spadiceus |
x |
|
|
|
Megaerops wetmorei, |
|
x |
|
|
Megaerops ecaudatus |
x |
|
|
|
Penthetor lucasi |
x |
|
|
|
Macroglosus sobrinus |
x |
x |
|
|
Eonycteris spelaea |
x |
|
|
|
Rousettus amplexicaudatus |
|
x |
x (BS6) |
|
Hipposideros cervinus, |
|
x |
|
|
Nycteris javanica, |
|
x |
|
|
Megaderma spasma |
|
x |
|
|
Myotis muricola |
|
|
x (BS 7) |
|
Rhinolophus lepidus |
|
x |
x (BS4,5) |
|
Tadarida mops |
x |
|
|
|
Tylonycteris pachypus, |
|
x |
|
|
Tylonycteris robustula, |
|
x |
|
Rats:
This kind of animal can be found on different land use types and shows differences in degraded habitats. Maxomys rajah usually dominates primary forest and logged-over forest, while Maxomys whiteheadi is normally very common in open areas. But in our survey we found this species in the logged-over forest, Paraserianthes, and rubber plantation. It is very closely related to Rattus exulans that we found also in Paraserianthes and rubber plantations. Although rats occurred across all LUTs, abundance was greatest at the Imperata site (see Table 5.4).
The reproduction status and ecology for each rat species in different land uses can be explained by the following :
Microbiogeography
of rats:
The dissimilarity distance between locations based on rat habitat show that there are two groups; primary and logged-over forest in the first group, and jungle rubber, Paraserianthes and Imperata in the second group. Results based on dissimilarity distances between rats show that Rattus tanezumi and Rattus tiomanicus tend to share a similar habitat. This is different to Maxomys rajah, that tends to live separately from other rats. The choice of habitat and associated breeding condition for each species can be explained by the following :
Rattus tanezumi (Indonesian black rats)
During the survey only one individual was found in the Paraserianthes plantation. This species is similar to Rattus rattus, but there are significant genetic differences between these species (Musser & Carleton, 1993). The reason it is found in Paraserianthes plantation is because there is a lot of human activity in that area. We predicted there would be a close relationship between rats at the Paraserianthes plantation and the level of human activity within the plantation forest.
Rattus exulans(Pacific
rats)
Ecology:
This species has a wider range of
distribution in South East Asia, Indonesia,
Reproduction:
We caught nine female rats in six different land use types during the survey and they were all pregnant . One female rat found at the Paraserianthes site was pregnant with two scars at both sides and uterine horn 1,48mm wide; another female rat found at the Imperata site was also pregnant with 5 foetuses in the left side and 1 at the other. Dwyer (1975) mentions that this species will breed during the wet season and produce a large litter.
Rattus tiomanicus(Malayan
field rats)
Ecology:
This species was found at both the Paraserianthes plantation and Imperata and it prefers a bushy place
(Payne et al., 1985). From nine rats
found during the survey, 8 occurred in Imperata
, and one at a site similar to Paraserianthes.
Corbet and Hill (1992) argue that this species is mutually incompatible with Rattus tanezumi.
Reproduction:
Six out of nine rats were male and ready for breeding. From 3 female rats, 2 were pregnant with one soon to be pregnant. About 5-7 babies will be born from each rat.
Maxomys rajah(Brown spiny
rats)
Taxonomy:
Two sub-species of these rats are
widespread in
Ecology:
This species tends to live in secondary forest or primary forest with sandy soil (Payne 1985). In this survey, even though the soil type between Paraserianthes and rubber plantation was similar (ultisol) and the sites closer to each other, in this survey we did not find Maxomys rajah in both sites. It was predicted that besides soil type, the litter depth at primary and logged-over forest would exert a major influence over the presence of this species.
Reproduction:
Seven mature rats were found in the field from the total specimens. There were 4 male Maxomys rajah from both primary and secondary forest ready for breeding (Scrotal). One female rat had been pregnant twice with the six scars on the right and five on the left (on the logged-over area), and another 2 female rats were found in the primary forest , one pregnant and the other still young but ready for breeding.
Maxomys whiteheadi(Whitehead’s rat)
Ecology:
This species can be found near the forest. Payne et al., (1985) mentions that this species can attack paddy rice, especially where paddy fields are surrounded by forest. It is associated with Rattus argentiventer, Rattus exulans, Rattus tiomanicus, Rattus tanezumi (Maryanto, data unpublished). In this survey, we found this species in Paraserianthes, logged-over forest, rubber plantation, and Imperata.
Reproduction:
We found 3 male rats in the field with imperfect testes (inguinal), only one showing perfect testes (scrotal). Another had just given birth and another 2 were pregnant.
Table 5.4
Records of rats for each land use type and
each plot based on sexual status and reproduction.
|
Habitat |
Trap trial |
Male mature |
Male young |
Female mature |
Female young |
Trapped |
Trapping/ trial |
|
Primary forest (BS1&2) |
2 |
2 |
|
2 |
|
4 |
2 |
|
Logged-over (BS 3) |
2 |
1 |
|
1 |
|
2 |
1 |
|
Logged-over 1983 (BS4 &5) |
2 |
2 |
1 |
1 |
|
4 |
2 |
|
Parasarianthess (BS6) |
2 |
4 |
|
2 |
|
6 |
3 |
|
Parasarianthes (BS7) |
2 |
1 |
|
1 |
|
2 |
1 |
|
Rubber plantation (BS8&9) |
2 |
2 |
- |
1 |
- |
3 |
1,5 |
|
Imperata (BS12&13) |
1 |
6 |
3 |
2 |
2 |
13 |
13 |
|
Cassava (BS14&15) |
1 |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |